Islamic History & Culture Past Papers - CSS Forum

Islamic History & Culture Past Papers 2026

zarnishayat — Fri, 21 Aug 2026 12:04:36 +0000

FEDERAL PUBLIC SERVICE COMMISSION
COMPETITIVE EXAMINATION-2026 FOR RECRUITMENT
TO POSTS IN BS-17 UNDER THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT

ISLAMIC HISTORY & CULTURE

PART-I (MCQs)(COMPULSORY)

Q.1. (i) Select the best option/answer and fill in the appropriate Box on the OMR Answer Sheet.(20x1=20)

(ii) Answers given anywhere else, other than OMR Answer Sheet, will not be considered.

1. Allama Muhammad Iqbal presented the concept of Ijtihad through the institution of:
(A) Council (B) Academy (C) Parliament (D) None of these

2. “Road to Makkah” was written by:
(A) Syed Ameer Ali (B) Dr. Muhammad Iqbal
(C) Dr. Muhammad Hamid Ullah (D) Muhammad Asad

3. Hazrat Huzaifa bin Yaman (R.A) observed differences in recitation during visit in:
(A) Syria (B) Iraq (C) Azarbaijan (D) Iran

4. The eighth month of Islamic calendar is:
(A) Shawal (B) Shaban (C) Ramazan (D) Rajab

5. The shrine of Hazrat Jalal-ud-Din Rumi is located in which country?
(A) Turkey (B) Syria (C) Iraq (D) Afghanistan

6. What are called the words which are recited on Hajj?
(A) Takbeer (B) Tasbeeh (C) Talbiya (D) Tahmeed

7. Who is the greater narrator of Hadith?
(A) Hazrat Abu Huraira (฀) (B) Hazrat Usman ( ฀) (C) Hazrat Abu Bakar ( ฀) (D) Hazrat Umer (฀)

8. Misaq-i-Madina was first written:
(A) Constitution (B) Treaty (C) Value (D) Oath

9. Hazrat Bilal (R.A) was appointed as incharge of:
(A) Security (B) Education (C) Diplomacy (D) Finance

10. Who was the first Sultan of the Ottoman Empire?
(A) Ghazi Sultan Murad (B) Sultan Ahmad (C) Osman Khan Ghazi (D) Bayezid Khan

11. The Holy Quran was first translated into Urdu by:
(A) Sir Syed Ahmad Khan (B) Shah Abdul Qadir (C) Allama Shibli Naumani (D) Ashraf Ali

12. Madhu Hadith refers to the:
(A) True Hadith (B) Forged Hadith (C) Hadith Qudsi (D) Zaef Hadith

13. Veda is the holy literature of:
(A) Judaism (B) Buddhism (C) Hinduism (D) Conficiousim

14. Bayt ul Hikmah (House of Wisdom), established by Abbasid Caliph Mamun was a:
(A) Public library (B) Translation Bureau (C) Academy and Observatory (D) All of these

15. Pick the statement that correctly summarizes difference between the terms Zimmi and Mawali in early Islamic
history:
(A) Zimmis were non-Muslims protected under Islamic Law, while Mawalis were non-Arab converts to Islam
(B) Mawalis were non-Muslims protected under Islamic Law, while Zimmis were non-Arab converts to Islam
(C) Zimmis were unprotected non-Muslims, while Mawalis were non-Arab converts to Islam
(D) Mawalis were unprotected non-Muslims, while Zimis were non-Arab converts to Islam

16. Nizam-ul Mulk Tusi, founder of Nizammiyah Madrissah, was a famous vizier of:
(A) Abbasid Caliphate (B) Seljuk Dynasty (C) Ayyubid Dynasty (D) Mughal Dynasty

17. Pick the correct statement
(A) Imam Abu Hanifa and Imam Bukhari belonged to the same era
(B) Imam Bukhari was a student of Imam Abu Hanifa (C) Both (A) & (B)
(D) Imam Abu Hanifa’s era preceded Imam Bukhari’s era

18. ____________, courtier of Ummayad Emir of Spain Abd-al-Rehman II and a major trend setter of his time was
instrumental in cultural transformation of Muslim Spain.
(A) Al Farabi (B) Zaryab (C) Fad ibn Rabi (D) None of these

19. Which of the following financial reforms were undertaken by Ummayad Calph Abdul Malik:
(A) Made Arabic the official language for financial administration
(B) Introduced Arabic coins in place of Greek and Persian Coins
(C) Both (A) & (B) (D) None of these

20. ___________________ formalized the law of fratricide (killing of one’s sibling), taking a fatwa to justify it as a
necessity to prevent civil war.
(A) Mehmad II (B) Suleiman I (C) Selim II (D) Selim I

PART-II

SECTION-A

Q. No. 2. Critically analyze the economic structure of Arab society before the dawn of
Islam.(20)

Q. No. 3. Write a detailed note on diplomatic strategy of Prophet Muhammad (صلى الله عليه وسلم (as a head
of state. Also discuss its impact in establishing a strong state of Madina.(20)

Q. No. 4. Explain the role of Shura in the political system of Islam under the Pious
Caliphate period.(20)

Q. No. 5. Provide an overview of the reforms introduced by Hazrat Umar (฀) for public
welfare. Also discuss their respective impacts.(20)

SECTION-B

Q. No. 6. Shed light on the intellectual contribution of Muslim philosophers in the period of
Abbasids.(20)

Q. No. 7. What did the salient features of administrative structure of the Ottoman Empire?
What role did the Ottoman Administrative structure played in sustaining such a vast
Empire?(20)

Q. No. 8. Propose measures to promote good relationships between Islam and the West. Also
discuss the underlying challenges.

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Islamic History & Culture Past Papers 2025

zarnishayat — Fri, 21 Aug 2026 11:57:26 +0000

FEDERAL PUBLIC SERVICE COMMISSION
COMPETITIVE EXAMINATION-2025 FOR RECRUITMENT
TO POSTS IN BS-17 UNDER THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT

ISLAMIC HISTORY & CULTURE

PART-I (MCQs)(COMPULSORY)

Q.1. (i) Select the best option/answer and fill in the appropriate Box on the OMR Answer Sheet.(20x1=20)

(ii) Answers given anywhere else, other than OMR Answer Sheet, will not be considered.

1. Before Islam, which religion was predominant in the Arabian Peninsula?
(A) Christianity (B) Judaism (C) Polytheism (D) Zoroastrianism

2. Which of the following was the main source of cultural influence in pre-Islamic Arabian society?
(A) Persian culture (B) Egyptian civilization (C) Christian and Jewish beliefs (D) None of these

3. Which is the year of the blessed birth of Prophet Muhammad (صلى الله عليه وسلم?(
(A) 570 or 571 CE (B) 575 or 576 CE (C) 590 or 591 CE (D) 595 or 596 CE

4. Under the leadership of Caliph Umar ibn al-Khattab(฀), the Islamic empire expanded into which region?
(A) North Africa and Spain (B) Persia and the Byzantine Empire
(C) India and Central Asia (D) None of these

5. Which of the following was a key feature of the governance of Caliph Umar ibn al-Khattab( ฀)?
(A) Centralization of power (B) Introduction of a judicial system
(C) Creation of a standing army (D) All of these

6. Under the rule of Caliph Umar ibn al-Khattab(฀), which key financial institution was established to
ensure the equitable distribution of wealth?
(A) The Bayt al-Mal (Public Treasury) (B) The Islamic Bank (C) The Zakat Fund (D) All of these

7. Which of the following is the main reason for the rise of factionalism during the Caliphate of Ali ibn
Abi Talib(฀)?
(A) Disputes over differences of belief (B) The assassination of Usman bin Affan(฀).
(C) Economic hardship. (D) None of these

8. Which of the following best describes the role of the Caliph in the Islamic State under the Prophet
Muhammad (صلى الله عليه وسلم (and the Pious Caliphate?
(A) Political leader only (B) Religious leader only
(C) Political and religious leader with responsibilities for both governance and spiritual guidance.
(D) None of these

9. What was the primary source of law during the time of the Prophet Muhammad (صلى الله عليه وسلم ?(
(A) The Qur’an and Hadith (B) The Qur'an Only (C) Consensus of the companions (Ijma) (D) None of these

10. In the context of early Islamic defense, which military leader is known for his strategic brilliance
and leadership during the battle of Yarmouk?
(A) Ali ibn Abi Talib(฀) (B) Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah(฀)
(C) Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas(฀) (D) Khalid ibn al-Walid (฀)

11. Which companion of Prophet Muhammad (صلى الله عليه وسلم (is known for his role in collecting the Qur'an and
transmitting knowledge to the next generation?
(A) Umar ibn al-Khattab(฀) (B) Zayd ibn Thabit (฀) (C) Abu Hurairah( ฀) (D) Ali ibn Abi Talib(฀)

12. Which of the following events significantly contributed to the spread of Islam in the Arabian
Peninsula?
(A) The migration to Medina (B) The Treaty of Hudaybiyyah (C) The conquest of Makka (D) None of these

13. What is the main characteristic of the political system in the Islamic state established by the Prophet
?(صلى الله عليه وسلم) Muhammad
(A) Democracy (B) Monarchy (C) Theocracy (D) Oligarchy

14. During which of the following was the Dome of the Rock built?
(A) Umar ibn al-Khattab(฀) (B) Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan
(C) Muawiya bin Abi Sufyan(฀) (D) None of these Page

15. Which architectural marvel was commissioned during the Umayyad rule and is still a symbol of
Islamic art?
(A) The Alhamra (B) The Great Mosque of Damascus (C) The Hagia Sophia (D) None of these

16. The Umayyads made a significant contribution to Islamic coinage by introducing which feature?
(A) Arabic inscriptions on coins (B) The use of gold as a standard currency
(C) The inclusion of portraits on coins (D) None of these

17. Which event is considered the turning point in the establishment of the Abbasid Caliphate?
(A) The Battle of the Zab (B) The fall of Damascus (C) The Siege of Mecca (D) None of these

18. Which major translation movement occurred during the Abbasid period, especially in the House of
Wisdom in Baghdad?
(A) Translation of Greek and Persian philosophical texts (B) Translation of Qur'anic exegeses
(C) Translation of Hindu astronomy texts (D) None of these

19. Who is considered the most famous Abbasid polymath in the field of medicine and philosophy?
(A) Al-Khwarizmi (B) Ibn Sina (Avicenna) (C) Al-Razi (Rhazes). (D) Al-Farabi

20. The Abbasids contributed significantly to which cultural field?
(A) Astronomy (B) Poetry and literature (C) Mathematics. (D) All of these

PART-II

SECTION-A

Q. No. 2. Describe the Prophet's (صلى الله عليه وسلم (methods to resolve the various (tribal, linguistic,
political and religious, etc.) conflicts and promote peace in the Muslim society in
the context of the Madani Era.(20)

Q. No. 3. Explain the challenges faced by Caliph Abu Bakr (฀) in consolidating Islam after
the Prophet Muhammad (صلى الله عليه وسلم (and how he overcame them?(20)

Q. No. 4. What was the role of zakat (charity) in the financial system of early Islam? How
was it managed by the Caliphs?(20)

Q. No. 5. Examine the military organization of the Umayyads and their strategies in
expanding the Islamic empire.(20)

SECTION-B

Q. No. 6. Discuss the factors that contributed to the political fragmentation of Muslim
Spain. How did the Taifa Kingdoms emerge? What impact did they have on the
unity of Muslim rule?(20)

Q. No. 7. Discuss the origin and early development of Sufism. What were the primary
factors that contributed to the emergence of Sufism in the early centuries of
Islam?(20)

Q. No. 8. Write short notes on the following: (10 each)
(a) The relationship between Islamic Modernism and Western influence
(b) The contributions of Al-Andalus in the spread of Islamic knowledge to Europe.

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Islamic History & Culture Past Papers 2024

zarnishayat — Fri, 21 Aug 2026 11:50:14 +0000

FEDERAL PUBLIC SERVICE COMMISSION
COMPETITIVE EXAMINATION-2024 FOR RECRUITMENT
TO POSTS IN BS-17 UNDER THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT

ISLAMIC HISTORY & CULTURE

PART-I (MCQs)(COMPULSORY)

1. The Annual Fair of Ukaz in pre–Islamic Arabia was held at:
(A) Makkah (B) Madina (C) Riaz (D) Taif

2. Who was the first martyr in Islam?
(A) Hazrat Hamza ( ) (B) Hazrat Sumayya ( ) (C) Hazrat Yasir ( ) (D) None of these

3. “Year of the Grief” in the life of the Holy Prophet (صلى الله عليه وسلم (was:
(A) 7th (B) 8th (C) 9th (D) 10th

4. The Pagan Tribe which was allies of the Muslims was:
(A) Banu Asad (B) Banu Khuza’ah (C) Banu Khazraj (D) Banu Bakr

5. The number of the companions of the Holy Prophet (صلى الله عليه وسلم(in Ghazwa Tabuk was:
(A) 10,000 (B) 30,000 (C) 50,000 (D) None of these

6. “Mubahala” was offered by the Holy Prophet (صلى الله عليه وسلم (to:
(A) Banu Quraiza (B) Banu Nazir (C) Banu Bakr (D) Delegate of Najran

7. Jerusalem was conquered in the period of:
(A) Hazrat Abu Bakr ( ) (B) Hazrat Umar ( ) (C) Hazrat Usman ( ) (D) Hazrat Ali

8. The Ottoman dynasty was established in the year:
(A)1299 AD (B) 1517 AD (C) 1605 AD (D) 1840 AD

9. “The preaching of Islam” is written by:
(A) Theodor Nöldeke (B) T.w. Arnold (C) Philip Hitti (D) W. Montgomery Watt

10. Ibn e Rushd the Great Muslim Philosopher was:
(A) Egyptian (B) Spanish (C) Iranian (D) Arabian

11. The Ottoman empire lasted for over:
(A) 5 Centuries (B) 6 Centuries (C) 7 Centuries (D) None of these

12. “Al Farooq” was written by Great Indian Scholar:
(A) Shah Waliullah (B) Sir Syed Ahmad Khan (C) Sulaiman Nadvi (D) Shibli Noumani

13. “Ghazwa e Mouta” was fought in:
(A) 6 AH (B) 7 AH (C) 8 AH (D) 10 AH

14. Social Boycott of Banu Hashim took place in Nabvi year:
(A) 6th (B) 7th (C) 8th (D) 9th

15. First Caliph of the Abbasid Caliphate was:
(A) Saffah (B) Haroon UR Rasheed(C) Mansoor (D) Mamoon

16. Who was the last Abbasid Caliph؟
(A) Al Qaim (B) Al Zahir (C) Al Mustakfi (D) Al Mustasim

17. The First book on International Law (Kitab ul Siyar) was written by:
(A) Imam Muhammad (رحہ((B) Imam Abu Yousuf (رحہ((C) Imam Abu Hanifa (رحہ((D) Imam(رحہ) Sahfihi

18. “Ghunyat ul Talibeen” was written by Great Sufi named:
(A) Al Ghazali (B) Al Sha’ahrani (C) Abdul Qadir Jillani (D) Ali Hajwairi

19. Ibn e Khaldoon was born in:
(A) Iraq (B) Egypt (C) Syria (D) Tunisia

20. “Reconstruction of Religious thoughts in Islam” was written by:
(A) T.W. Arnold (B) Ameer Ali (C) Dr. Muhammad Iqbal (D) None of these

PART-II

SECTION-A

Q. No. 2. Discuss the importance of Prophetic Farewell Adress. Do you agree that this
address is the summary of Islamic teachings?(20)

Q. No. 3. Highlight the Salient features of Judicial system established in the period of
(رضوان اللہ علیھم اجمعین).Rashida e Khilafat(20)

Q. No. 4. Write down a detailed note about the causes of the downfall of Umayyads. (20)

Q. No. 5. Discuss the role and status of women in early Islam. (20)

SECTION-B

Q. No. 6. Write down a comprehensive note on the development of Medical Science in
Muslim Spain.(20)
Q. No. 7. What was the Strategy adopted by the Muslim Sufi’s for the preaching of Islam in
the Subcontinent?(20)
Q. No. 8. Prove that Islam is a religion of Peace and does not support any kind of Terrorism. (20)

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Islamic History & Culture Past Papers 2023

zarnishayat — Fri, 21 Aug 2026 11:42:00 +0000

FEDERAL PUBLIC SERVICE COMMISSION
COMPETITIVE EXAMINATION-2023
FOR RECRUITMENT TO POSTS IN BS-17
UNDER THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT

ISLAMIC HISTORY & CULTURE

PART-II
SECTION-I

Q. No. 2. “Treaty of Hudaybiyyah is a master piece of foreign politics of the Holy
Prophet صلى الله عليه وسلم“. Argue this statement with a scholarly approach.(20)

Q. No. 3. Derive Islamic principles of elections from the process of the selection of
the Rightly Guided Caliph Usmān �.(20)

Q. No. 4. Explain the causes and effects of political divisions and schisms among
muslims during first three islamic centuries.(20)

Q. No. 5. Give an overall comparison between the rule of Banu Umayyah and Banu
Abbās.(20)

SECTION-II

Q. No. 6. Discuss critically the political role and influence of Barmuk family during
the caliphate of the Abbasids.(20)

Q. No. 7. Discuss critically the causes and effects of the end of islamic rule in Spain. (20)

Q. No. 8. Write a scholarly note on contribution of Islam to modern civilization. (20)

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Islamic History & Culture Past Papers 2022

zarnishayat — Fri, 21 Aug 2026 11:37:54 +0000

FEDERAL PUBLIC SERVICE COMMISSION
COMPETITIVE EXAMINATION-2022
FOR RECRUITMENT TO POSTS IN BS-17
UNDER THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT

ISLAMIC HISTORY & CULTURE

PART-II
SECTION-I

Q. No. 2. Describe three main blessings of Hazrat Abubakar Sidique (RA) on the
Ummah.(20)

Q. No. 3.

Q. No. 4. Give a comparison between Islamic Shurah and present day democratic
system.(20)

Q. No. 5. Explain the impact of Islamic Civilization on the Western world. (20)

SECTION-II

Q. No. 6. How Islam reached and spread in the Sub Continent? Explain with references. (20)

Q. No. 7. How the movement of modernism penetrated through Islamic World in the
present time?(20)

Q. No. 8. Discuss the Influence of Greek Philosophy on the intellects’ of Abbasid period
and their response.

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Islamic History & Culture Past Papers 2020

zarnishayat — Fri, 21 Aug 2026 11:30:01 +0000

FEDERAL PUBLIC SERVICE COMMISSION
COMPETITIVE EXAMINATION-2020
FOR RECRUITMENT TO POSTS IN BS-17
UNDER THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT

ISLAMIC HISTORY & CULTURE

PART-II
SECTION-I

Q. No. 2. Explain the political and religious importance of treaty of Medina. (20)

Q. No. 3. Shed light on the knowledge and bravery of Hazrat Ali (R.A) in battle fields. (20)

Q. No. 4. Explain the major reasons of the fall of Ummayed Dynasty in 132 .A.H. (20)

Q. No. 5. Explain baitulmal management during the period of Caliph Umar Ibn Abdul
Aziz. Discuss its impacts.(20)

SECTION-II

Q. No. 6. Highlight the impacts of the Crusades on Muslims and Christens. (20)

Q. No. 7. Discuss in detail contributions of Muslims to natural sciences in Abbasid period.(20)

Q. No. 8. Explain the causes and effects of emerging Muslim’s trends towards
Modernism.

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Islamic History & Culture Past Papers 2019

zarnishayat — Fri, 21 Aug 2026 11:24:16 +0000

FEDERAL PUBLIC SERVICE COMMISSION
COMPETITIVE EXAMINATION-2019
FOR RECRUITMENT TO POSTS IN BS-17
UNDER THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT

ISLAMIC HISTORY & CULTURE

PART-II
SECTION-I

Q. No. 2. The Charter of Madina played a vital role towards the formation of Islamic State in
Madina. Discuss.(20)

Q. No. 3. Bristly furnish the services of Caliph Abu Baker (R.A.) in the establishment of Khilafat
Institutions.(20)

Q. No. 4. State the salient features of Umayyad’s period. (20)

Q. No. 5. Write short notes on any TWO of the following: (10 each)
i. The Contents of the last sermon of Hajj
ii. Development of Arabic Literature
iii. Migration to Ethiopia

SECTION-II

Q. No. 6. During which period the Sufism was organized & developed. (20)

Q. No. 7. Enlist the Political, Economic, Educational and Social Aspects of Islamic Modernism. (20)

Q. No. 8. Write short notes on any TWO of the following: (10 each)
i. The Crusades
ii. Contribution of Culture, Arts & Architecture under Ottoman Dynasty
iii. Abu Jafer Al-Mansoor

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Islamic History & Culture Past Papers 2018

zarnishayat — Fri, 21 Aug 2026 11:21:19 +0000

FEDERAL PUBLIC SERVICE COMMISSION
COMPETITIVE EXAMINATION-2018
FOR RECRUITMENT TO POSTS IN BS-17
UNDER THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT

ISLAMIC HISTORY AND CULTURE

PART-II
SECTION-I

Q. No. 2. Describe the Socio-Political conditions of Arabia before the dawn of Islam. (20)

Q. No. 3. Holy Prophet’s Hijrat from Makkah to Madina was the turning point in the history of
Islam. Explain.(20)

Q. No. 4. Analyse the Fiscal Policy adopted by Umar bin Abdul Aziz during his reign. (20)

SECTION-II (20)

Q. No. 5. Give an analytical study of the Muslim Architecture in Spain with special reference to
Cordova Mosque and Al-Hamra of Granada.(20)

Q. No. 6. Describe the Philosophical, scientific and literary progress under the Abbasids. (20)

Q. No. 7. Critically evaluate the Ottoman’s administrative reforms with special reference to
Tanzimat.(20)

Q. No. 8. Write a comprehensive essay on “Islam and the Challenges of Modernity”; in your
opinion what should be an agenda for the 21st century?

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Islamic History & Culture Past Papers 2017

zarnishayat — Fri, 21 Aug 2026 11:18:32 +0000

FEDERAL PUBLIC SERVICE COMMISSION
COMPETITIVE EXAMINATION-2017
FOR RECRUITMENT TO POSTS IN BS-17
UNDER THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT

ISLAMIC HISTORY AND CULTURE

PART-II
SECTION-I

Q. No. 2. Peace and security is the top-most priority and policy of an Islamic State. Give
reasons and a comprehensive commentary on the battles fought by the Holy
Prophet (PBUH).(20)

Q. No. 3. Throw light on Islamic Political System under the Holy Prophet (PBUH) and the
Pious Caliphs. Explain that how is it different from Western Political System?(20)

Q. No. 4. Write notes on any two of the following:
(a) Statecraft & the administration under the Umayyads.
(b) Religious Conditions in Arabia before the dawn of Islam.
(c) Educational system in the early phase of Islam.(20)

SECTION-II

Q. No. 5. Point out the main features of Muslim contribution to religious literature and
philosophy in Spain under the Muslim rule.(20)

Q. No. 6. Discuss the role and response of Muslim Scholars to modernism and
post-modernism.(20)

Q. No. 7. Discuss in detail the impact of Crusades on Muslim Society throughout the
history.(20)

Q. No. 8. Write notes on the following: (10 each)
(i) Scientific achievements during Abbassids rule.
(ii) Dissemination of Muslim learning in the West.

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Islamic History & Culture Past Papers 2016

zarnishayat — Fri, 21 Aug 2026 11:15:04 +0000

FEDERAL PUBLIC SERVICE COMMISSION
COMPETITIVE EXAMINATION-2016
FOR RECRUITMENT TO POSTS IN BS-17
UNDER THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT

ISLAMIC HISTORY & CULTURE

PART-II
SECTION-I

Q. No. 2. The last sermon of the Prophet (P.B.U.H) was the first Charter of Human
Rights. Do you agree? If yes, prove it.(20)

Q. No. 3. “Administration of Justice” has been the policy of Muslim Rulers throughout
History. Explain.(20)

Q. No. 4. Write short notes on the following: (10 each)
(a) Architecture (b) Calligraphy

SECTION-II

Q. No. 5. The Spanish Muslims established the foundations of Knowledge which become
the mile stone of progress in Europe. Explain.(20)

Q. No. 6. Write down the achievements of Khilafat-e-Usmaniya during 1292 to 1923. (20)

Q. No. 7. Muslim culture in Pakistan is being dominated by European and Hindu Culture.
Do you think we need Renaissance and Reformation? Explain.(20)

Q. No. 8. Who were the Sufies of Sub-Continent who had close relations with the State
and Political authorities?

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